CATDOLL : CATDOLL: Help me. Review materials for junior high school biology and geography. Please be detailed. No questions, just the outline.

Junior high school biology examination review outline

Organisms and the biosphere

1. Learn about organisms

2. The biosphere is the home of all living things

Organisms and cells

1. Observe the structure of cells

2. Cell life

3. How cells form organisms

4. Tiny organisms without cell structure - viruses

Green plants in the biosphere

1. What green plants are there in the biosphere?

2. Life cycle of angiosperms

3. Green plants and the water cycle of the biosphere

4. Green plants are the producers of organic matter in the biosphere

5. Green plants and the carbon-oxygen balance in the biosphere

6. Protect vegetation and green our country

Grade 7, Volume 2

Man in the Biosphere

1. The Origin of Humans

2. Nutrition for the human body

3. Human breathing

4. Transport of substances in the human body

5. Excretion of waste from the human body

6. Regulation of human life activities

7. Impact of human activities on the biosphere

Grade 8, Volume 1

Other organisms in the biosphere

1. Animals in various environments

2. Animal movement and behavior

3. The role of animals in the biosphere

4. Widespread distribution of bacteria and fungi

5. The role of bacteria and fungi in the biosphere

Biodiversity and its protection

1. Classify organisms based on their characteristics

2. Understand the diversity of life

3. Protecting biological diversity

Grade 8, Volume 2

The continuation and development of life in the biosphere

1. Reproduction and development of organisms

2. Inheritance and variation of organisms

3. Evolution of Organisms

Live Healthy

1. Infectious diseases and immunity

2. Medication and first aid

3. Know yourself and improve your health

Biology Grade 7

Common characteristics of living things: 1. Living things need nutrition 2. Living things can breathe 3. Living things can excrete waste produced in the body 4. Living things can respond to external stimuli 5. Living things can grow and reproduce

Classification of organisms: (1) Animals, plants, other organisms (2) Terrestrial organisms, aquatic organisms (3) Crops, poultry, livestock, pets

The scope of the biosphere: a layer with a thickness of about 20 kilometers, including the bottom of the atmosphere, most of the hydrosphere and the surface of the lithosphere.

The basic conditions provided by the biosphere for the survival of organisms: the basic conditions required for the survival of all organisms, including animals and plants, are the same. They all need nutrients, sunlight, air and water, as well as suitable temperature and a certain living space.

The impact of abiotic factors on organisms: The life of organisms is affected by abiotic factors. When one or several factors in the environment change dramatically, it will affect the life of organisms and even cause their death.

The impact of biological factors on organisms: predator-prey relationships, competition relationships, and cooperative relationships

Ecosystem: In a certain area, the unified whole formed by organisms and the environment is called an ecosystem. It includes producers (plants), consumers (animals), decomposers (microorganisms)

Food chain and food web: The relationship between producers and consumers is mainly the relationship between eating and being eaten, which forms a food chain. In an ecosystem, there are often many food chains, which are intertwined and connected to form a food web. The matter and energy in the ecosystem flow along the food chain and food web.

Biological systems have a certain degree of self-regulation ability

A variety of ecosystems: forest ecosystems, grassland ecosystems, marine ecosystems, freshwater ecosystems, wetland ecosystems, farmland ecosystems, and urban ecosystems.

The biosphere is a unified whole: every ecosystem is connected to other ecosystems around it: in terms of abiotic factors, in terms of infernal relations, and in terms of the organisms in the ecosystem.

Practice using a microscope: first adjust the coarse focus knob, then adjust the fine focus knob.

Observing plant cells: Commonly used slide specimens include: sections - made from thin slices cut from organisms; smears - made by smearing liquid biological materials; mounts - made from a small amount of material torn off or transferred from organisms.

Cell wall: The outermost transparent thin wall that protects and supports the cell.

Cell membrane: A very thin membrane attached to the inside of the cell wall.

Nucleus: Plant cells have an approximately spherical shape.

Cytoplasm: The structure inside the cell membrane and outside the nucleus.

There are vacuoles in the cytoplasm, and many substances are dissolved in the cell fluid in the vacuole. In the cells of the green part of the plant body, there are also chloroplasts in the cytoplasm. (Animal cells do not have chloroplasts, cell walls, and vacuoles)

Plant cell model diagram 7 on P45 Animal cell model diagram 7 on P48

What substances are in cells: Many substances are made up of molecules.

Inorganic substances: The molecules are relatively small and generally do not contain carbon, such as water, inorganic salts, oxygen, etc.

Organic matter: The molecules are relatively large and generally contain carbon, such as sugars, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.

Cells produce some waste in their daily lives, such as urea, carbon dioxide, etc.

The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell. There are energy converters in the cytoplasm.

Chloroplasts convert light energy into chemical energy and store it in the organic matter they produce.

Mitochondria use some organic matter in the cells as fuel, combining these organic matter with oxygen and transforming them into carbon dioxide and water through a complex process. At the same time, they release the chemical energy in the organic matter for use by the cells.

The cell nucleus contains a substance called DNA that stores genetic information. The carrier of genetic information is a kind of medium, and its structure is like a spiral ladder. The DNA molecule is very long and can be divided into many fragments. Each fragment has specific genetic information. These fragments are called genes.

DNA and proteins make up chromosomes.

Cells divide to produce new cells: the growth of organisms from small to large is inseparable from the growth and division of cells. However, cells cannot grow indefinitely, and some cells will divide when they grow to a certain size.

Cell division process and chromosome changes 7 on P59

Cell differentiation forms tissues: Epithelial tissue: protection, secretion, etc. Muscle tissue: contraction and relaxation Nervous tissue: generation and conduction of excitement Connective tissue: support, connection, protection, nutrition, etc. 7 P62

Tissues further form organs, which make up systems and the human body

The eight systems in the human body are: motor system, digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, urinary system, nervous system, endocrine system, and reproductive system. These eight systems work together to enable the various complex life activities in the human body to proceed normally.

Structural levels of a plant body: The fertilized egg undergoes cell division and differentiation to form tissues and organs, and then forms a plant body.

Green flowering plants have six major organs: roots, stems, leaves (nutritional), flowers, fruits, and seeds (developmental)

Several major tissues of plants: meristem, protective tissue, nutrient tissue, conductive tissue, etc.

Several single-celled organisms: yeast, Paramecium, Chlamydomonas, Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium.

Schematic diagram of the structure of Paramecium, the relationship between single-cell organisms and humans: 7 on P70

Types of viruses: Viruses have no cell structure and are much smaller than cells. Their size can only be expressed in nanometers. Viruses cannot live independently and must live in the cells of other organisms. Depending on the cells they parasitize, viruses can be divided into three categories: animal viruses, plant viruses, and bacterial viruses.

Structure and life of viruses: The structure of viruses is very simple, consisting of a protein shell and genetic material inside, and has no cellular structure.

The relationship between viruses and humans: 7 on P73

Green plants in the biosphere: algae (the lowest), mosses, ferns (the highest), seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms).

Seed structure (beans, corn): 7 on P85

Angiosperms are better adapted to terrestrial life than gymnosperms, are more widely distributed in the biosphere, and have more species.

The conditions for seed germination: suitable temperature, certain amount of water, and sufficient air 7 on P92

Seed germination process: When a seed germinates, it first absorbs water. The nutrients in the cotyledons or endosperm are transferred to the radicle, plumule, and hypocotyl. Subsequently, the radicle develops, breaks through the seed coat, and forms roots. The hypocotyl elongates, and the plumule develops into stems and leaves.

Plant growth: 7 on P97

Plants need nutrients to grow: water, organic matter and inorganic salts (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)

The basic structure of peach blossom: 7 on P102

Pollination: When anthers mature, they will naturally split and release pollen. The process of pollen falling from anthers to the stigma of the pistil is called pollination.

Fertilization: After the pollen falls on the stigma, it begins to germinate under the stimulation of the mucus on the stigma, grows a pollen tube, passes through the style, enters the ovary, and reaches the ovule. The sperm in the pollen tube moves downward as the pollen tube elongates, and eventually enters the ovule, which contains an egg cell, which combines with the sperm from the pollen tube to form a fertilized egg.

Formation of seeds and fruits: After fertilization, the petals, stamens, stigma and style have completed their "historical mission" and thus fall off. Only the ovary continues to develop and eventually becomes a fruit. The ovary wall develops into the fruit skin, the ovules in the ovary develop into seeds, and the fertilized eggs in the ovules develop into embryos.

Characteristics of roots suitable for absorbing water: The root absorbs water mainly in the mature area of ​​the root tip, where there are a large number of root hairs.

Water transport pathway: 7 on P111

Green plants use organic matter 7 P123

Green plants and the carbon-oxygen balance in the biosphere (1773, an experiment by British scientist Priestley) 7, p127

Protect vegetation and green our country.

Biology Grade 7

The origin and development of human beings: The common ancestor of modern apes and humans is the forest ape. More than 12 million years ago, the forest ape was widely distributed in Africa, Asia, and Europe, especially in the tropical jungles of Africa.

Schematic diagram of human origin and development: 7th grade P5

Human fossils from 3 million years ago: Lucy Ancient humans from 1.75 million years ago: East African people

1929: Pei Wenzhong discovered the first fossil of the Peking Man skull.

Reproductive system: Human beings go through the process of the combination of male and female reproductive cells and the formation of a new individual through embryonic development. This process is completed by the reproductive system. The reproductive systems of men and women are different, and there are also differences between adults and children.

Anatomy of the male and female reproductive system: 7, P9

Reproductive process: 7 to P10

Delivery: By the 40th week of pregnancy, the fetus is mature. The mature fetus and placenta are discharged from the mother's vagina, a process called delivery.

Characteristics of puberty: sudden growth in height, significant enhancement of the nervous system and organs such as the heart and lungs, nocturnal emissions in boys and menstruation in girls.

Sexual awareness during adolescence: from being alienated from the opposite sex in the early stage to gradually being willing to get close to the opposite sex, or developing a vague attachment to the opposite sex.

The basic requirements of family planning in my country are: late marriage, late childbearing, fewer births, and better quality births.

Nutrients in food: Food contains six types of nutrients, including carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water, inorganic salts and vitamins.

Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in food: provide energy 7 P22

Water and inorganic salts: Water can transport energy, and inorganic salts include calcium, phosphorus, iron, iodine, and zinc.

Vitamins: 7 P26

Changes of food in the digestive system: The oral cavity is the beginning of the digestive system, which contains teeth, tongue and salivary glands. The salivary glands have ducts, and the saliva they secrete enters the oral cavity through the ducts.

The composition and function of the digestive system: 7 P32

Digestive system: Digestive tract: A very long tube. Digestive glands are divided into two categories: some are large digestive glands located in the digestive tract, such as the liver; some are small glands distributed on the inner wall of the digestive tract, such as intestinal glands.

Absorption of nutrients: Food is digested in the digestive tract and eventually broken down into nutrients such as glucose and amino acids that can be absorbed by the human body.

Reasonable nutrition and food safety: Part 7, P37

Respiratory system: The human respiratory system is composed of the respiratory tract and lungs. The respiratory system has a structure and function suitable for gas exchange with the outside world.

Respiratory tract: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi, which are the passages for gases to enter and exit the lungs.

Function of the respiratory tract: It is a passage for gases, processes the inhaled gases, and makes the gases in the lungs warm, moist, and clean.

Lungs exchange gas with the outside world: Lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. They are located in the chest cavity, one on each side. The left lung has two lobes, and the right lung has three lobes. Without you knowing it, your lungs are exhaling and inhaling rhythmically.

Lung movement pattern diagram: 7 P49

Gas exchange between alveoli and blood: 7 P50

A person breathes more than 20,000 times a day and exchanges at least 10,000 liters of gas with the environment every day.

Composition of blood: Blood is composed of plasma and blood cells. At the junction of the two layers, there is a thin layer of white substance, which is white blood cells and platelets.

Plasma: transports blood cells, substances needed to maintain human life activities, and waste produced in the body, etc.

Blood cells: Blood cells include red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. After the blood is layered, the red blood cells are in the lower layer and are red, while the white blood cells and platelets are at the junction of the two layers and are very thin and white.

Red blood cells: The most numerous blood cells, they are concave and round, have no nucleus, and contain hemoglobin, which can carry oxygen.

White blood cells: have a nucleus, are larger than red blood cells, can pass through capillary walls, surround and engulf bacteria.

Platelets: The smallest blood cells, without a nucleus, irregularly shaped, and capable of releasing substances involved in blood clotting.

Arteries, capillaries, veins: 7, p67

Heart anatomy diagram: 7, P68

Diagram of heart work: 7, P69

Blood circulation pattern diagram: 7 down P70

Systemic circulation: Blood enters the aorta from the left ventricle, then flows through arteries, capillaries, and veins at all levels throughout the body, and finally converges into the superior and inferior vena cava and flows back to the right atrium. This circulation pathway is called systemic circulation.

Pulmonary circulation: The blood that flows back to the right atrium is pressed into the pulmonary artery through the right ventricle, flows through the capillary network in the lungs, and then flows back to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. This circulation pathway is called pulmonary circulation.

The systemic circulation is the blood starting from the left side of the heart and returning to the right side, and the pulmonary circulation is the blood starting from the right side of the heart and returning to the left side, thus forming a complete blood circulation pathway.

In 1900, Austrian scientist Landsteiner discovered blood types.

Blood transfusion relationship table: 7, p76

Kidney: An organ that forms urine. Each kidney consists of about 1 million structural and functional units called nephrons. Each unit is made up of parts such as the glomerulus, the renal capsule, and the renal tubule.

Diagram of the internal structure of the kidney: 7, p81

Urine formation diagram: 7, p82

Bladder: Temporarily stores urine.

The basic structure and function of the eyeball: 7th grade P89

The process of vision formation: light reflected from external objects passes through the cornea, pupil, lens and vitreous body in sequence, and is refracted by the lens, etc., and finally falls on the retina to form an image. There are light-sensitive cells on the retina. These cells transmit image information to a certain area of ​​the brain through the optic nerve, and people have vision.

Basic structure and function of the ear: 7, P93

The process of hearing formation: 7th grade P94

Components of the nervous system: The nervous system is made up of the brain, bone marrow, and the nerves that branch off from them.

The composition and function of the nervous system: 7, p98

Neuron: Neurons, also called nerve cells, are the basic units that make up the structure and function of the nervous system. There are hundreds of millions of neurons in the human body.

The basic regulation method of nerves is reflex.

Reflex: The human body's regular reaction to various external or internal stimuli through the nervous system.

Loosen the hand steamed bun diagram: 7 times P102

The human body regulates its own life activities through various simple or complex reflexes, so that it can respond quickly and appropriately to internal and external stimuli.

The main endocrine glands that make up the endocrine system: 7, P106

The life activities of the human body are mainly regulated by the nervous system, but are also affected by hormone regulation.

Biology Grade 8

Fish: There are two crucial characteristics that enable fish to live in water: one is that they can swim by swinging their tails and coordinating their fins to obtain food and defend against enemies; the other is that they can breathe in water using their gills.

Other aquatic animals:

Coelenterates: They have a mouth but no anus. Food enters the digestive cavity through the mouth, and the digested food residues are still discharged from the body through the mouth.

Molluscs: They have soft bodies and rely on shells for protection (squids and octopuses have degenerated shells and are also mollusks)

Crustaceans: Crustaceans have a hard shell on their body surface.

The growth environment of earthworms, the internal structure of rabbits 8 on P16

Animals that fly in the air: Animals that fly in the air appeared in nature hundreds of millions of years ago. First, there were insects among invertebrates, then there were birds among vertebrates, and then there were bats among mammals. They are both terrestrial animals and suitable for flying.

There are more than 9,000 species of birds and more than 1 million species of insects in the world.

Birds' characteristics that make them suitable for flying: Birds' bodies are covered with feathers, their forelimbs have become wings, and they have the ability to fly quickly; they have air sacs in their bodies; their body temperature is high and constant. Birds' body structure and physiological characteristics are adapted to their flying life.

Characteristics of insects: Insects have three pairs of legs and can crawl; some insects have specialized legs that can jump; most insects have wings and can fly. Insects are the only invertebrates that can fly.

The body of an insect is divided into three parts: the head, thorax, and abdomen. The organs of locomotion, wings and legs, are located in the thorax. The exoskeleton is a tough outer shell covering the inside of the insect's body that protects and supports the soft organs inside and prevents the evaporation of water in the body.

Classification of insects: Insects belong to arthropods (the body is composed of many segments; the body surface has an exoskeleton; the legs and antennae are segmented)

Amphibians: Animals that live both on land and in water, breathe with lungs and use their skin to assist breathing are called amphibians.

Animal movement: Rabbit skeleton, joint pattern, muscle and bone and joint relationship 8 on P29

Coordination of bones, joints and muscles: Changes in bone position produce movement, but bones themselves cannot move. Bone movement depends on the traction of skeletal muscles.

Exercise requires the control and regulation of the motor system and nervous system. It also requires the supply of energy, so it also requires the cooperation of the digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system and other systems.

Animal behavior: feeding behavior, defensive behavior, reproductive behavior, migratory behavior, etc. It can also be divided into innate behavior and learned behavior.

Characteristics of social behavior: Animals with social behavior often form certain organizations within the group, with clear division of labor among members, and some groups even form hierarchies. This is the main characteristic of social behavior.

Information exchange in groups: 8 on P39

Ecological balance: There is a relationship of mutual dependence and mutual restriction between various organisms in the food chain and food web. The number and proportion of various organisms in the ecosystem are always maintained in a relatively stable state. This phenomenon is called ecological balance.

Animals and bioreactors: Using bioreactors to produce certain substances needed by humans can save the cost of building factories and purchasing instruments and equipment, and can reduce complex production procedures and environmental pollution.

Animals and bionics: Scientists invent various instruments and equipment by carefully observing and studying living organisms and imitating certain structures and functions of living organisms. This is bionics.

Colony: Bacterial colonies are relatively small, with smooth or sticky surfaces, or rough and dry. Fungal colonies are generally several to dozens of times larger than bacterial colonies. Fungal colonies are often fuzzy, flocculent or spider-web-like, and sometimes appear in different colors such as red, brown, green, black, and yellow.

Discovery of bacteria: Dutchman Robert van Hooke made a 200-300 times magnification microscope to observe the dental plaque of the elderly and discovered bacteria.

Pasteur used a gooseneck bottle to prove that bacteria were produced by pre-existing bacteria. He also discovered lactic acid bacteria and yeast, and proposed methods for preserving wine, pasteurization, and preventing surgical infections. Later generations called him the "Father of Microbiology."

The shape and structure of bacteria: Bacteria are very small. About 1 billion bacteria piled up together would only be as big as a grain of rice. The shape of bacteria can only be observed with a high-power microscope or electron microscope... Bacteria do not have a nucleus 8 on P60

Bacterial reproduction: Bacteria reproduce by division. Some bacteria shrink in size and thicken their cell walls in the later stages of growth, forming spores. Spores are dormant forms of bacteria and have strong resistance to adverse environments.

Reproduction of fungi: Fungi reproduce by producing large numbers of spores.

The roles of bacteria and fungi in nature: 1. Participate in material circulation as decomposers 2. Cause diseases in animals, plants and humans 3. Coexist with animals and plants.

Human use of bacteria and fungi: 8 on P70

Biological classification: The basis of classification is the characteristics of organisms in terms of morphology and structure. The basic unit of classification is species.

Plant classification: 8 on P81

The order of biological classification from largest to smallest is: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.

Biology Grade 8

Plant reproduction:

Sexual reproduction: They reproduce by flowering, pollination and fruiting, and the seeds of the fruit are used to reproduce. The embryo in the seed develops from the fertilized egg formed by the combination of the two sexual reproductive cells.

Asexual reproduction: the production of new individuals directly from the mother without the union of male and female reproductive cells.

Grafting is the process of grafting a bud or branch of one plant onto another plant so that the two combined parts grow into a complete plant.

Metamorphosis: In the process of developing from fertilized eggs into new individuals, the morphological structure and living habits of silkworm larvae and adults are very different. This development process is called metamorphosis.

Complete metamorphosis: The development process goes through four stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult. This process is called complete metamorphosis.

Incomplete metamorphosis: The development process goes through three stages: egg, nymph and adult. This process is called incomplete metamorphosis.

The reproductive and developmental processes of birds: including courtship, mating, nesting, egg laying, incubation and chick rearing

Genes control the characteristics of organisms: inheritance refers to the similarity between parents and offspring, and variation refers to the differences between parents and offspring and between offspring individuals. The inheritance and variation of organisms are achieved through reproduction and development.

Relative traits: different manifestations of the same trait.

Genes and chromosomes: There are chromosomes in the cell nucleus, and there are proteins and DNA in the chromosomes. The shape and number of chromosomes in the cells of each organism are fixed.

In the somatic cells of organisms (excluding reproductive cells), human somatic cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

In 1883, Belgian embryologist Benedin discovered that the sperm and chromosomes of horse roundworms only had two of the two pairs of chromosomes.

Gene transfer through sperm or egg cells8 P30

1858-1865 Mendel of Austria discovered the dominant and recessive nature of genes

In 1902, American cytologist McClung discovered a pair of chromosomes in male cells that were different from other chromosomes. He called this pair of chromosomes sex chromosomes.

In 1905, American cytologist Wilson called male sex chromosomes X chromosomes and Y chromosomes. The same pair of chromosomes in female cells are the same, both are X chromosomes.

In 1953, young American scholar Miller simulated the original earth conditions and atmospheric composition and synthesized a variety of amino acids.

The trend of biological evolution: from simple to complex, from low to high, from aquatic to terrestrial.

Darwin's theory of nature: In nature, individual organisms have the characteristics of inheritance and variation. Only those with favorable variations can easily survive in the struggle for survival and pass these variations to the next generation, while those with unfavorable variations are easily eliminated. In this way, through the fierce struggle for survival, the organisms in nature survive, and the unfit ones are eliminated. This is natural selection. Organisms continue to evolve through inheritance, variation and natural selection.

Pathogens: Organisms such as bacteria, viruses and parasites that cause infectious diseases.

Three basic links in the spread of infectious diseases

Source of infection: A person or animal that can spread pathogens.

Transmission route: The route through which pathogens leave the infection source and reach healthy people, such as air transmission, food transmission, biological vector transmission, etc.

Susceptible population: People who lack immunity to a certain infectious disease and are easily infected by the disease.

Preventive measures for infectious diseases: Preventive measures for infectious diseases can be divided into three aspects: controlling the source of infection, cutting off the transmission route and protecting susceptible populations.

The human body’s three lines of defense: 1. Skin and mucous membranes 2. Bactericidal substances and phagocytes in body fluids 3. Antibodies produced by immune organs and immune cells.

The third line of defense is the acquired defense function that the human body gradually builds up after birth. Its characteristic is that it is produced after birth and only works against a specific pathogen or foreign body, so it is called specific immunity (also known as acquired immunity).

Three functions of immunity: 1. Clear out aging, dead and damaged cells in the body 2. Resist the invasion of antigens and prevent the occurrence of diseases 3. Monitor, identify and eliminate abnormal cells produced in the body.

The harm of immunity, planned immunization: 8, p78

Prescription drugs (RX): They must be purchased with a prescription from a licensed physician or licensed assistant physician, and must be taken as directed by the physician.

Over-the-counter drugs (OTC): drugs that can be purchased without a doctor's prescription and taken according to the instructions.

Artificial respiration method, external chest compression: 8 times P84

External bleeding: can be divided into capillary bleeding, venous bleeding and arterial bleeding 8 P85